In order to help our children compete in sports or simply become physically fit and healthy, we must understand a little bit about fitness for kids – how a child grows and how they develop. Nowhere in the time line of a human’s life is there greater growth and development taking place. Many times, the terms growth and development are used interchangeably, but they are in fact, two very different things:

• Growth refers to increases in size (height and body proportion).
• Development refers to the evolution of the body’s functional capacities (including the mind).

 

During the first two years of life, the height and weight growth of a child are the most extensive he or she will ever encounter. Chances are by their second birthday your child will reach 50% of their total adult height. This height increase will slow down until puberty, then their height will increase dramatically once again until they pass out of puberty and into adulthood. The weight of your child is a different story. Under normal
circumstances your child will reach their peak height by age 17 or 18. However, unlike height, weight can continue to increase throughout their childhood years as well as their adult years. This weight increase can be due to either:

• Obesity from excessive calorie consumption and/or a lack of sufficient physical activity.
• Increased muscle mass due to a productive resistance training program and suitable nutrition.

 

It’s well documented that kids today have a higher obesity rate than any time in recorded history. Whose to blame? Video games? Fast food takeaways? Attention deficits among our youth?

At the end of the day, the parent is the one who can control their environment and their lifestyle. They are the one who feeds them and who can yank them away from the television and into the garden to play. Modern technology may be part of the problem, but it’s only a problem if proper care and respect aren’t implied.

The same rules of exercise and nutrition apply to children as they do adults. The only difference is that adolescents are capable of growth at immensely greater rates than adults. For instance, during puberty, males have a much greater capability for gaining lean muscle mass than adults, and females have a greater capacity for increased body fat deposition. With this in mind, you must carefully monitor your child’s diet to allow for greater muscle gain and to minimize fat gain.

Most physical education teachers agree that the budgetary and time allowances cutbacks in the public school’s PE programs offer an inadequate system for physical fitness. The combination of dressing, role call, showers and dressing again as well as allowing time to arrive and leave of  another class may leave as little as 20 minutes for physical exercise! Many PE programs practice a sports skills orientation, meaning more time is spent learning skills and less time for physical exertion. As a result of this, think of PE as the teacher of sports skills, and the kid’s own private time with their parents and sports teams as the implementation of those skills, and the physical demand that it brings.

 

Even a well designed and implemented PE program cannot contend with poor eating habits at home. The bottom line is, the parent MUST take responsibility for their child’s fitness and health. Today’s youth are overfed and under nourished. Too much fat and calories and not enough of the vitamins, minerals and quality carbohydrates and protein has found it’s way into the diets of many children. Past research has even found that a women’s diet during pregnancy and the differences between feeding practices can impact their risk of obesity. (47)

 

Food Preferences in Infancy
Infants have an innate preference towards certain taste qualities and dislikes of other tastes. They prefer sweet-tasting foods and reject bitter foods such as vegetables. This is due to an evolutionary response that was historically useful because that sweet taste meant it was a good source of energy (lots of calories), while bitter tasting foods were a warning it might be toxic. Some researchers believe that infants begin to accept bitter tastes around the age of 14–180 days (49).

As the kids grow up, they still tend to refuse foods and become picky about certain foods. This reluctance to try new foods is called neophobia. This tendency seems to be minimal around six months of age, and so infants may be more willing to try new foods at this age (49).  Parental actions that seem well intended – restricting junk food, pressuring to eat nutrient-rich foods, or rewarding for good behaviours (with junk food) can actually be counterproductive and lead to unhealthy habits, which might lead to obesity for children later in life. (50)

• Restricting tasty food from children may increase their desire for it, lead them to eat they’re not hungry and inhibit the ability to self-regulate (47).
• Rewarding kids with chocolate and candy can create a mental association with rewards and pleasure to sugary and fatty foods that extend to later in life (48, 49).

 

So the question is, how do you make your home healthy for your child?

 

Being the Role Model 
Children learn and adapt by modelling the behaviours of those around them. When they are young, parents (plus elder brothers and sisters) are the main role models in their lives. This is an excellent weapon for parents to use in their kids nutritional battle to influence and develop a healthy nutritional lifestyle.

The trick is to manage their food environment. People eat away from home too often, which can mean poorer food choices during the week. Family meals eaten at home are an opportune place for parents to offer a model of healthy eating behaviour. Neophobia (mentioned above) can often be overcome in children who have positive role models and children are far more likely to try unfamiliar foods if they have observed someone else eating them. When Dad takes a bite of his son’s food and show signs of enjoyment, he is far more likely to try the food. (51)

Lead others by doing it yourself. A survey of over 550 families found that parents’ fruit and vegetable consumption was the strongest predictor of a child’s intake of those foods (52). This means eating a wide variety of foods and consuming fruits and vegetables regularly. In addition, parents can expose their children to fruits and vegetables through movies, books, and gardening.

In regards to rewards, consider using a non-food reward. A UK study found that exposing four to six year olds to vegetables and giving them a sticker for eating them was the most effective at increasing their intake of vegetables compared to exposure plus verbal praise or just exposure (48).

 

Here are the four main guidelines for parents to ensure a healthy nutrition and activity environment:

 

There is no such thing as a good sugared beverage. That includes fruit juice. But isn’t fruit juice healthy for them? Whole fruit is fine and the fibre in whole fruit contributes to a sense of fullness. However, we should think twice before drinking juice or feeding it to our kids. It’s rare to see a child eat more than one orange, but it is common for kids to consume much more sugar and calories as orange juice. At the end of the day, a failure to limit all sugar intake appears to be the most predictive of poor weight control in children. Researchers hypothesise that there is an association between children’s food preferences from the ages of 5 or 6 and their risk of obesity (48). Eating habits that they develop when young, can influence either their lifelong eating behaviours. This is why a parents’ positive influences are vital for establishing healthy lifestyle behaviours in their children.

 

We need to control their blood sugar levels to control insulin levels (see a detailed article on insulin here). Too much insulin will drive fat storage and weight gain. How do we control that? Fibre. If you eat your carbohydrates with fibre, you will lessen the insulin response. Your insulin won’t go up as high because your blood sugar won’t go up as high. Look at the side of the package, and where it says fibre. You want 3 grams of dietary fibre or greater per serving. Eating fibre results in less carbohydrate being absorbed in the gut. In addition, fibre consumption allows the brain to receive a satiety signal sooner than it would otherwise, so we stop eating sooner.

 

Let’s say your kid comes up and says “I’m hungry”. So you give him a modest plate of food. The kid then eats the whole plate of food and declares, “I’m still hungry”. Look back at them, smile and say, “how can you be hungry after just eating that whole plate of food?” But the kid is still hungry. No one wants to be a bad parent, so you give the kid more. What went wrong there?

There’s a hunger hormone in your stomach called “Ghrelin”. When your stomach is empty, ghrelin goes up and tells your brain you’re hungry. When you eat, ghrelin goes back down. That’s it right? Wrong. The reduction of ghrelin ends up reducing hunger, but it does not induce a feeling of satisfaction. Hunger and satiety are two different concepts. Satiety comes at the end of the intestine. So your food has to pass through the stomach, traverses 22 feet of intestine, reaches the cells at the end of the intestine, trigger to release a hormone called “Peptide YY”, which travels along your blood stream to your hypothalamus in your brain to tell you you’re satisfied. It takes 20 minutes for all that to occur, so let the food work and wait 20 minutes before second portions. Food with enough fibre can reduce that time to 16 – 18 minutes as it will speed up the transit time through the digestive system and get you feeling fuller sooner.

 

Kids must buy their TV time, Facebook time, video game time, texting time with activity. If the kids are outside playing for half an hour, they can have a half hour of TV. The problem is a lot of parents are using the TV as a babysitter to keep them quiet and occupied. It’s hard to give that luxury up but exercise is needed, It doesn’t have to be a long duration, but it needs to be consistent and sustained. Exercise burns a significant amount of calories, and it has many additional benefits. Exercise improves insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle, lowering insulin levels in the bloodstream. Exercise reduces stress and, therefore, reduces stress induced eating. Lastly, exercise increases metabolic rate. The directive to balance active play with computer, video and TV time is the most difficult one to comply with, but it’s worth it.

 

Additional Tips

 

 

Two of the most frequently asked questions I get about children and strength training are:

“Is it safe for kids to lift weights?”

“At what age can kids start lifting weights?”

Many doubts still exist surrounding the safety and validity of weight training for children. Many still believe that kids have no place at all in the weight room. Despite this however, myself and numerous exercise physiologists all strongly support an implementation of strength and resistance training for young children.

Many recent studies (7-10) now show that a moderate intensity strength training program has many benefits for kids including:

 

Resistance training makes an excellent weight-control program for overweight children as an activity to increase their metabolic rate without high impact. Similar to the geriatric population, strength training in kids can stimulate bone mineralization and have a positive effect on bone density. Children can increase their strength by 30% to 50% after just 8 to 12 weeks of well-designed strength training. After that they would need to continue to train at least 2 times per week to maintain strength. (1)

Multiple studies (11-16) have shown that strength training, with proper technique and strict supervision, can increase strength in preadolescents and adolescents. Frequency, type of resistance, intensity, and duration all contribute to a properly structured program. Increases in strength occur with virtually all modes of strength training of at least 8 weeks’ duration and can occur with training as little as once a week (although training twice a week may be more beneficial).

 

 

We aren’t the only ones recommending resistance training; the American Academy of Pediatrics has also put forth the following official statement:

“The American Academy of Pediatrics position on strength training supports the implementation of strength and resistance training programs, even for prepubescent children, that are monitored by well-trained adults and take into account the child’s maturation level. The only limitation the AAP suggests is to avoid repetitive maximal lifts (lifts that are one repetition maximum lifts or are within 2-3 repetitions of a one repetition maximum lift) until they have reached Tanner Stage 5 of developmental maturity. Tanner Stage 5 is the level in which visible secondary sex characteristics have been developed. Usually, in this stage adolescents will also have passed their period of maximal velocity of height growth.”

 

The epiphyseal plates, otherwise known as “growth plates” (located on the ends of bones), are responsible for a child’s bone growth. These cartilage plates continuously divide and regenerate throughout a child’s development in order to form new bone. When the child reaches full adult height (around age 15 to 19), regeneration ceases and the cartilage plates mineralise to form the end of their now mature bones. Studies on this have led to worries about damage to the growth plates and stunted growth.

A couple of old studies were published in 2009 and 2010 that linked weight lifting and stunted growth:

• 2009 study (1) by Katherine Dahab and Teri McCambridge of Johns Hopkins University. Findings concluded a concern with the impact of weightlifting on your bones and joints.
• 2010 study (2) by Andrew Fry of the University of Kansas and Corey Lohnes of Washington University. Findings concluded a correlation with increased testosterone and the premature closure of growth plates.

This links to the AAP’s statement above concerning the limitation on maximal lifts. Repeated injury of growth plates from excessive maximal stresses before Tanner Stage 5 may hinder growth. Two of the leading researchers in the field of youth fitness, Fleck and Kraemer, agree that maximal lifts should be avoided (3). However, Fleck, Kraemer, the AAP and myself all agree that a strength training program that doesn’t include maximal lifting is beneficial for prepubescent and pubescent youth (20,23). In fact, a strength and resistance training program should be required in certain instances (45).

 

Let’s take a moment to review some of the more recent research:

• Dr. Avery Faigenbaum of the University of Massachusetts, has found that previous concerns about weight lifting stunting a child’s growth are outdated and misleading. Instead, he suggests that eating a healthy diet and exercising regularly allow you to achieve your maximal height, with inactive, unhealthy eaters more likely to have stunted growth (15, 17, 19, 45).
• Betsy Keller of Ithaca College found some researchers focused only on specific groups of athletes in their research. Evidence for weightlifting’s negative impact on growth arose solely from sports that were well-suited for shorter people, such as women’s gymnastics and competitive dancing. Betsy points out that weightlifting may be more effective than other forms of exercise in promoting bone growth and density among adolescents (5).
• Joshua Yarrow of the Veterans Administration Medical Center supports this evidence in a 2008 study. Their research found that testosterone injections increased both bone length and density, suggesting that weightlifting’s impact on testosterone may be beneficial. (6)
• A study of young male powerlifters found that high-intensity resistance training is effective in increasing lumbar spine and whole body bone mineral density. Resistance training was shown to enhance strength and muscular endurance in youth and children as a result of neuromuscular activation and coordination. This supports evidence that androgens (the hormones responsible for increased strength and muscle mass) are not needed for strength gain. (2)

 

So what does this mean?

Both direct and indirect evidence suggests that weightlifting can increase bone length and density, and it seems rather than stunting your growth, weightlifting when you are young may allow you to grow taller than you would without such exercise. With proper supervision, children and youths who undergo a strength training program do not have any increased risk for injury compared to those kids who do not participate in such a program. These studies above make a strong case for a strength and conditioning program that will reduce the possibility of injuries in children by increasing bone mass. Proper resistance training is incredibly effective at stimulating growth and development, not a hindrance to it!

 

What about young girls?

Research has shown that in physical ability, both sexes progress at similar rates until puberty sets in. Thereafter, boys experience a much greater rate of development due to a radical increase in testosterone output. Testosterone is the quintessential male hormone, and it gives boys a distinct strength and muscle mass advantage over girls.

Why is this important? Suppose your daughter really wants to play baseball, but your community doesn’t offer a league for girls. Eliminate the social expectations of young females (typically imposed upon them by unwary parents), and up to puberty, your daughter possesses both the strength and skill to play in the boy’s league. After puberty, the situation changes quite rapidly and dramatically. (5)

Regardless of their stage of development, strength training for young females is particularly important due to their increased risk for osteoporosis (a degenerative bone disease). There have been several studies that suggest forms of training (such as plyometric jumps and high impact aerobics), can increase bone mass in young females. It’s particularly beneficial to start training prior to puberty as greater gains in bone mass can be made in premenarchal girls than in those who have already started menstruating.

 

Training for kids and teens is only safe and beneficial when it’s age appropriate, progressive, taught correctly and monitored. Just as adults need to build a foundation for strength training with exercises in balance and proper form and movement, children also require practice and strategies that match their age and fitness levels.

Here are my recommendations to parents who want to get their kids into fitness or conditioned for a sports team:

 

In this earliest phase, children are just learning fundamental motor skills and building the neuromuscular pathways they need to coordinate movements. The simplest exercises are appropriate at this age, for example, bouncing a balloon from one hand to the next. It’s also important at this age to make movement and exercise a positive and social experience for them.

During the middle phase, children should be introduced to multiple sports and activities. Placing emphasis on just one might be tempting, but it can lead to burnout, boredom, and repetitive motion injuries. This is the time to teach kids fundamental skills for movement, agility, strength, endurance, and hypertrophy, as well as specific sports skills. Things like throwing stones, climbing ropes and trees, jumping, running around, and so forth are also very awesome.

In addition, studies have found this to be the age when you can introduce basic strength training and plyometrics (34-36). Start to introduce strength training and other more targeted exercises to improve conditioning, movement, and overall fitness. The primary goal is to keep the repetitions higher and sets lower to first create muscle memory and ensure proper form.

When you have your kid lifting with good form, I recommend a training scheme of 10-15 repetitions and 1-3 sets per muscle group. The weight should be one that they can lift for 10-15 repetitions without going to muscular failure. If they start to lose form or can’t complete ten reps, you’ve gone too high and need to step them down to a lower weight.

 

Once reaching this age range, teens can get into more advanced strength and conditioning training, but focus should also be placed on socializing, building self-esteem, and developing a regular and consistent workout or sports routine. Emphasising the importance of regular activity develops an attitude that will carry over into adulthood and prepare teens to live active and healthy lifestyles.

It is crucial to remember that a one-size-fits-all approach cannot be used with children because in any age group there will be different talents, abilities and maturation rates.

 

Fitness for Kids – Examples: 

Generally, the youngster will adapt well to the same type of training routine used by the mature athlete. But training programs for children and adolescents should be designed specifically for each age group, keeping in mind the developmental factors associated with that age. Recommended exercises include:

 

• Encourage participation in a wide variety of sports and activities. It certainly helps to get your child involved in organised sport programs offered by your community!
• Safety should always come first when training a youth or child. Before you begin training anyone, be sure to have written parental and medical permission to do so.
• It is vitally important that young clients are adequately hydrated and sufficiently warmed-up before beginning a training session.
• Youth and children should always be under the direct supervision of a competent trainer or coach when weight training.
• Establish the concept of a training program that emphasizes technique and form, not amount of weight used.
• Exercises should be age-appropriate and individualized for each child.
• Exercises should be done with a slow progression. Allow only gradual increases in volume and intensity.
• Always supervise children working out and correct form.
• Vary exercises to keep kids interested and avoid repetitive stress.
• Rest 3 mins between sets.
• Rest 1 min between a failed set and a retry.
• Move into entry-level adult programs and/or sport specific training only after background knowledge of training has been established and basic technique has been mastered.

 

Fitness for Kids – References

1. “Sports Health”; Strength Training in Children and Adolescents: Fitness for Kids – Raising the Bar for Young Athletes?; Katherine S. Dahab and Teri M. McCambridge; May-June 2009.
2. “Human Physiology”; Fitness for Kids – Acute Testosterone and Cortisol Responses to High Power Resistance Exercise; Andrew C. Fry and Corey A. Lohnes; July 2010.
3. “Steroids”; Androgens and Bone; Bart L. Clarke and Sundeep Khosla; March 2009.
4. “NCSA’s Performance Training Journal”; Ask the Experts; January 2002.
5. “American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine”; Development of Fitness in Children: Fitness for Kids – The Influence of Gender and Physical Activity; Betsy A. Keller; January-February 2008.
6. “American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Medicine”; Supraphysiological Testosterone Enanthate Administration Prevents Bone Loss and Augments Bone Strength in Gonadectomized Male and Female Rats; Joshua F. Yarrow et al.; November 2008.
7. Faigenbaum AD. Fitness for Kids – “Strength training for children and adolescents”. Clin Sports Med. 2000;19(4):593– 619.
8. Stricker PR. “Sports training issues for the paediatric athlete”. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2002;49(4):793–802
9. Blundell SW, Shepherd RB, Dean CM, Adams RD, Cahill BM. “Functional strength training in cerebral palsy”: a pilot study of a group circuit training class for children aged 4 – 8 years. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(1):48 –57
10. McBurney H, Taylor NF, Dodd KJ, Graham HK. Fitness for Kids – “A qualitative analysis of the benefits of strength training for young people with cerebral palsy”. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45(10): 658 – 663
11. Morris FL, Naughton GA, Gibbs JL, Carlson JS, Wark JD. “Prospective ten month exercise intervention in premenarchal girls: positive effects on bone and lean mass”. J Bone Miner Res. 1997;12(9):1453–1462
12. Blimkie CJ, Rice S, Webber CE, et al. “Effects of resistance training on bone mass and density in adolescent females”. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1996;74(9):1025–1033
13. Falk B, Tenenbaum G. “The effectiveness of resistance training in children”: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 1996;22(3):176–186
14. Payne VG, Morrow JR Jr, Johnson L, Dalton SL. “Resistance training in children and youth: a meta-analysis”. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1997;68(1):80–88
15. Faigenbaum AD, Milliken LA, Loud RL, Burak BT, Doherty CL, Westcott WL. “Comparison of 1 and 2 days per week of strength training in children”. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2002;73(4):416–424
16. Stricker PR, Van Heest JL. “Strength training and endurance training for the young athlete”. In: Birrer RB, Griesemer BA, Cataletto MB, eds. Pediatric Sports Medicine for Primary Care. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002:83–94
17. Ramsay JA, Blimkie CJ, Smith K, Garner S, MacDougall JD, Sale DG. Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22(5):605–614
18. Blimkie CJ. Resistance training during preadolescence: issues and controversies. Sports Med. 1993;15(6):389–407
19. Faigenbaum AD, Westcott WL, Micheli LJ, et al. Fitness for Kids – The effects of strength training and detraining on children. J Strength Cond Res. 1996;10(2):109–114
20. Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Frykman PN, Conroy B, Hoffman J. Resistance training and youth. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 1989;1(4): 336 –350
21. Ozmun JC, Mikesky AE, Surburg PR. Neuromuscular adapta- tions following prepubescent strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26(4):510–514
22. Guy JA, Micheli LJ. Strength training for children and adoles- cents. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2001;9(1):29–36
23. Fleck SJ, Kraemer WJ. Designing Resistance Training Programs. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books; 2004
24. Webb DR. Strength training in children and adolescents. Pedi- atr Clin North Am. 1990;37(5):1187–1210
25. Flanagan SP, Laubach LL, DeMarco GM Jr, et al. Effects of two different strength training modes on motor performance in children. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2002;73(3):340–344
26. Ha ̈kkinen K, Mero A, Kauhanen H. Specificity of endurance, sprint, and strength training on physical performance capacity in young athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989;29(1):27–35
    PEDIATRICS Volume 121, Number 4, April 2008 839 Downloaded from by guest on February 15, 2016
27. Cahill BR, Griffith EH. Effect of preseason conditioning on the incidence and severity of high school football knee injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1978;6(4):180 –184
28. Hejna WF, Rosenberg A, Buturusis DJ, Krieger A. Fitness for Kids – The prevention of sports injuries in high school students through strength training. Natl Strength Coaches Assoc J. 1982;4(1):28–31
29. Hewett TE, Meyer GD, Ford KR. Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: part 2—a meta-analysis of neuro- muscular interventions aimed at injury prevention. Am J Sports
    Med. 2006;34(3):490 – 498
30. US Consumer Product Safety Commission. National Electronic Injury Surveillance System [database]. Fitness for Kids – Available at: www.cpsc. gov/library/neiss.html. Accessed March 29, 2007
31. Risser WL, Risser JM, Preston D. Weight-training injuries in adolescents. Am J Dis Child. 1990;144(9):1015–1017
32. Risser WL. Weight-training injuries in children and adolescents. Am Fam Physician. 1991;44(6):2104 –2108
33. Mazur LJ, Yetman RJ, Risser WL. Fitness for Kids – Weight-training injuries. Sports Med. 1993;16(1):57– 63
34. Weltman A, Janney C, Rians CB, et al. The effects of hydraulic resistance strength training in pre-pubertal males. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(6):629 – 638
35. Bailey DA, Martin AD. Physical activity and skeletal health in adolescents. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 1994;6(4):330 –347
36. Steinherz LJ, Steinherz PG, Tan CT, Heller G, Murphy ML. Cardiac toxicity 4 to 20 years after completing anthracycline therapy. JAMA. 1991;266(12):1672–1677
37. Maron BJ, Chaitman BR, Ackerman MJ, et al. Recommenda- tions for physical activity and recreational sports participation
    for young patients with genetic cardiovascular diseases. Circulation. 2004;109(22):2807–2816
38. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Fitness for Kids – Adolescents and anabolic steroids: a subject review. Pediatrics. 1997;99(6):904 –908
39. Gomez J, American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Use of performance-enhancing substances. Pediatrics. 2005;115(4):1103–1106
40. Harris SS. Readiness to participate in sports. In: Sullivan JA, Anderson SJ, eds. Care of the Young Athlete. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 2000:19 –24
41. Stone MH, Pierce KC, Sands WA, Stone ME. Weightlifting: a brief overview. Strength Cond J. 2006;28(1):50 – 66
42. Byrd R, Pierce K, Reilly L, Brady J. Young weightlifters’ performance across time. Sports Biomech. 2003;2(1):133–140
43. Hamill BP. Relative safety of weightlifting and weight training. J Strength Cond Res. 1994;8(1):53–57
44. Cahill BR, ed. Fitness for Kids – Proceedings of the Conference on Strength Training and the Prepubescent. Rosemont, IL: American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine; 1988:1–14
45. Faigenbaum A, Kraemer W, Cahill B, et al. Fitness for Kids – Youth resistance training: position statement paper and literature review. Strength Cond. 1996;18(6):62–76
46. National Strength and Conditioning Association. Strength & Conditioning Professional Standards & Guidelines. Colorado Springs, CO: National Strength and Conditioning Association; 2001. Available at: www.nsca-lift.org/Publications/standards. shtml. Accessed March 29, 2007
47. EUFIC Food Today 02/2011. Tastes differ – how taste preferences develop: http://www.eufic.org/article/en/page/FTARCHIVE/artid/how-taste-preferences-develop/
48. Gibson EL et al. (2012). A narrative review of psychological and educational strategies applied to young children’s eating behaviours aimed at reducing obesity risk. Obes Rev 13(1):85–95.
49. Mennella JA & Beauchamp GK. (1996). Fitness for Kids – The early development of human flavor preferences (pp. 83–112). In Capaldi ED. (ed.) Why we eat what we eat: The psychology of eating. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
50. Scaglioni S et al. (2011). Fitness for Kids – Determinants of children’s eating behaviour. Am J Clin Nutr 94(suppl):2006s–2011s.
51. Wardle J et al. (2008). Genetic and environmental determinants of children’s food preferences. Br J Nutr 99:S15–S21.
52. Anzman-Frasca et al. (2012). Repeated exposure and associative conditioning promote preschool children’s liking of vegetables. Appetite 58:543–553.